Sex Therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sex Therapy - Essay Example A sex therapist has professional training and the required practice to solve sexual problems. They generally have an educational background in other fields like psychology, medicine or social work. Many people have inhibitions in discussing their sexual problems but sex therapists help them overcome it. During their sessions they ask the patient to read various sex related books, practice better sexual communication skills and do touching exercises which are so designed so as to reduce their problem they have during intercourse. Sex therapy does not give a medical degree but has a separate course with its own rules and regulations (Indiadiets.com, 1999). Many women all over the world are facing childbirth problems which can be solved through sex therapy. The sex therapist helps in determining the exact problems that a couple faces in childbirth. He assesses the whole situation and provides the solution accordingly. There are people who have been sexually abused and are suffering from depression. A sex therapist through proper counseling can help such people overcome the problem. Thus sex therapy also helps in clinical works. In a case, a wife had been refered to a sex therapist by a pshcologist.

Outsourcing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Outsourcing - Research Paper Example Why are they still outsourcing from these suppliers. Are there more fundamental principles that need to be considered? This work will try to answer these questions and other issues in more details. National Express is the largest scheduled coach service provider in Europe. In the UK, distinctive white National Express coaches operate to more than 1,000 destinations and carry over 17 million customers a year. The Euro lines coaches additionally operate to over 500 destinations within Europe and Ireland. National Express coach services also serve the major UK airports with additional dedicated on-airport coach and bus services operated by Air links that are based at Gatwick. They also provide a Hotel Hoppa service, which links major hotels at both Heathrow and Gatwick to the airport terminals. Other dedicated airport operations help to serve British Airports Authority (BAA) and the wider airline community at these increasingly busy locations. National Express Ltd is also part of a leading international transport provider - National Express Group (NEG), which itself has over 45,000 employees. In addition to train and bus companies within the UK including Gatwick Express, one, Midland Mainline and Travel West Midlands their overseas operations include student transportation and public transit in the USA & Canada, the management of Stewart International Airport near New York and bus and coach operations in Spain operated by Alsa. In total the National Express Group now carry over 1 billion passengers a year. National Express outsources 80%of their services from third party with whom they have long term contracts. With a growing competition from many other operators, the abolition by the government of the subsidies of elderly and disable passengers, and the financial austerity, National Express like many other companies is under lot of pressure to provide a good value for money service. The aim of this project is to investigate and

Service Quality RTE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Service Quality RTE - Essay Example The service marketing mix includes process, physical evidence, and people. When offering services instead of products, a company's reputation, the process of delivering the service and what is promised, value for the money, and follow up. Other differences include the improbability of services not being able to be returned and a company's service can be based on one particular sales representative. Council (2006) which states "The relationship between the audience and the broadcaster can be very uneven yet good communications between the two are vital for the ongoing development of a truly relevant service. RT is committed to being open to its audience, welcoming all contact, listening to all views, and responding promptly and appropriately. To facilitate communication and to enhance accountability" In order to provide quality services via services marketing, RTE must be aware of key macro economic environmental factors such as the climate in which the company conducts business. Regulations and policies set by the government. The economic environment includes the business cycle, rate of inflation, and interest rates. The changes in society's trends and markets and technological impact are also macro economic environmental factors. A Political, Economic, Socialcultural, and Technological Analysis (P.E.S.T. or PEST Analysis) is used to examine the macro (external) environment that companies must face and deal with when conducting business. External factors can be considered bad and yet a dynamic external environment creates opportunities as changes occur. Macro economic environmental factors are forces which affect companies dramatically if not controlled and addressed accordingly. The macro factors are dynamic and produce major changes and trends. Such factors include technology, politics, the status of the economy, and the Last Name 3 environment. As stated earlier, these factors (along with many other macro economic environmental factors) drive the changes that constantly occur. Demographics, or "The characteristics of human populations and population segments, especially when used to identify consumer markets", as defined by The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000) are highly determined. Unlike demographics, however, the macro environmental factor of public opinion is very uncertain. RTE should focus on the factors that are the most important and most uncertain. The company should focus on trends that are observable and measurable as these are good indicators of what changes should expect to happen and the directions in which these changes will take. RTE has an advantage in keeping abreast of the macro environmental factors as the media services (television, radio, business, news,

Impact of television on professional sports Essay Example for Free

Impact of television on professional sports Essay It was in late 1940’s and beginning of 1950’s that television was introduced to the common people. In the words of Marc and Thompson, â€Å"Marshall McLuhan who was earning the distinction of becoming the first ‘media critic,’ described television in the 1950’s as an ‘electronic hearth,’ a kind of proto-cyberworld fireplace, around which families were gathering during this new stage of post-industrial existence. (2005, p. 55) Following sports became completely different with the advent of television. Now there was no need to waste entire day to watch one’s favourite game in the stadium or strain one’s ears to keep track of the latest happenings in the fields through the radio. Those who had not yet brought this powerful medium of entertainment home used to be a part of â€Å"a crowd of people standing in the street in front of an appliance dealership watching TV through the store window. † (Marc and Thompson, 2005, p. 53) So people at homes or as sidewalk audiences started cheering the sportsmen for their efforts that was visible on screen. The television enhanced the status of sports as a social activity that could be viewed at the comfort of homes. It also introduced the masses to different kinds of sports. Earlier people were aware of the sports that were common in their country only. Due to television sportsmen of diverse kinds of sports became household names. Television gave the sportsmen, the fame and recognition across the continents. This was unimaginable otherwise. Boyle and Haynes observed, â€Å"today it is difficult to imagine football without television or a television schedule bereft of football. † (2004, p. 7) This observation is true in a wider context too. Television sector has undergone tremendous growth. Hundred of channels all over the world are dedicated to sports, which telecast not only the game but also each and every aspect of the players’ lives. The top sportsmen enjoy the same fan following and power as the film stars. Where there is maddening fan following and popularity, can money be behind? The salaries of the top players in all the sports have soared really high. It’s no wonder that popular games like tennis, football, cricket etc. have become businesses in their own right. There has been major commercialization of sports since 1950’s – the advent of television. Talking about football Boyle and Haynes lamented, â€Å"the increasing influence that television has exercised over the sport and the unhealthy degree to which clubs have become dependant on television income have meant that the economic aspects of the game have become of considerable interest. † (2004, p. 8) This pathetic state of affairs can be identified with the economics of other professional sports too. All the different sports can be addressed as different products. The mushrooming of rival leagues in each category of product can be compared to different brands of that category, which are constantly trying to outdo each other. This competition or war amongst the rival leagues is benefiting them but deteriorating the spirit of sports. The flow of television money has turned competitive balance into competitive imbalance. However Wigglesworth argued, â€Å"commercialism has always been present in sport in one form or another. It may have begun with the donation of prizes by local tradesmen at holy day recreations and have become more highly organized in rural sports, often sponsored by publicans. † (2007, p. 35) According to Wigglesworth commercialization has helped in the growth of professionalism. This indicates that before 1950’s it was impossible to consider sports as a profession because the players were not paid proper salaries. Thus all the players used to dabble with other professions in order to keep their kitchens running. Since the advent of television, sports have been started being recognised as one of the well-paid professions and each decade after 1950’s has seen a further hike in the players’ salary. The channel boom in the past decade has made the picture rosier for the players as far as their salaries are concerned. Talking about the growth of leagues Wigglesworth observed, â€Å" money from television coverage and all the associated media opportunities was the spur for the bigger clubs to organize themselves into a league†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2007, p.129). He further elaborated â€Å"even cycling clubs have derived commercial benefits from increased television coverage of the sport during the 1980’s and 1990’s. â€Å"(2007, p. 132) It is since the 1980’s that the television started changing the conventional scenario of sports at a much greater pace than ever before. Some of the top rival leagues, which were created in 1960’s and 1970’s to promote sports, merged sports and media and have even started running their own sport channels, thus taking their rivalry to newer areas. The following statement of Holland paints a gloomy picture of the impact of television on sports: â€Å" As the broadcasting of sport gradually becomes as important as the event itself, there has been growing concern over the adaptation of the sports to suit the needs of television. † (2000, p. 138) It is threatening that all the sports event have become a ground of cut throat competition between the satellite, cable and terrestrial broadcasters. To get the exclusive rights of the major sporting events these parties have been bidding higher and higher. This factor has shook competitive balance to a great extent, which has started proving detrimental for the sports on the whole. So to conclude the impact of television has been both good and bad across all sports, whether it is cricket, rugby, boxing, swimming, horse riding tennis etc. It has been most beneficial to the players of popular sports, financially. The creation of rival leagues can be viewed a positive impact but growing unhealthy rivalry amongst them and competitive imbalance has been some of the drawbacks of television. In the words of Wigglesworth, â€Å"One result of the commercialization of sport through television has been the depersonalization of spectator sport with the old fashioned ‘fan’ becoming simply a customer. † (2007, p. 164). References Boyle, R. and Haynes, R. (2004). Football In The New Media Age. New York: Routledge Holland, P. (2000). The Television Handbook. (2nd ed. ). New York: Routledge. Marc, D. and Thompson, R. J. Television In The Antenna Age: A Concise History. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Walvin, J. (1978). Leisure and Society. UK: Longman. Wigglesworth, N. (2007). The Story Of Sport In England. New York: Routledge.

Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship

Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship â€Å"As globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas and products across national boundaries, individuals will be more identified as global citizens and less prone to xenophobic attitudes.† Discuss. While globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, it provides opportunities to individuals to become global citizens. However, while this essay will argue that this has made them less prone to xenophobic attitudes, globalisation has also had other impacts which may have only provoked xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact which globalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how Multinational Corporations have increased the need for globally mobile employees, therefore increasing their cultural intelligence along the way. The essay will also explore employees working within global organisations who are not globally mobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance of cultural intelligence will also be discussed alongside the growing focus of scholars on cosmopolitan or global citizens, and finally, the essay will examine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobic views. Globalisation is the introduction and growth of products, people, information, and money across borders and is an important impact on the shape of national identities and relationships (Ariely, 2011).   Arnett (2002) argues that globalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-set of citizens around the world and has positively and sometimes negatively redefined national identity and culture. In effect, globalisation defines the world in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens identify themselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnett, 2002). However, some researchers have argued that in the process globalisation has undermined national cultures and identity – creating what is moving towards a single identity for all global citizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively, globalisation has been guided by â€Å"economic forces† (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) with the actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNC’s) furthering globalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNC’s comes the need for the retention and transfer of knowledge between operating units and countries (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNC’s for three main reasons; to fill positions where no suitable candidate exists in the host country, as an opportunity to develop the expatriate’s skills, and most importantly; to transfer important knowledge and corporate culture from home to host countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNC’s expats will work with people of many different nationalities, and globalisation is only expediting the mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the number of cultures in which expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is exposure to new cultures has increased the number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feel accustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiation process. The knowledge and understanding of different cultures that being bi-cultural brings allows these individuals to adapt quickly and become more adept to different situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generally undergo an identity negotiation process when entering employment with a new organisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014). Sanchez et al (2000) explain that during the adjustment process to working within a different culture, an individual may become more attached to their home unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. This acculturation is essentially a process leading to cultural changes within the individual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014), and can be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operating in different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation with their home and host country and can lead to positive outcomes – however, two of the outcomes of acculturation can be marginalisation or separation, where an individual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry, 2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiation process, where when individuals encounter a new culture question their values and beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity through experimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014). While expats seem to have the most experience with operating within different cultures, globalisation has meant that even individuals working within their home country can experience different cultures too (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals working in organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well as those with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of different cultures. Experience of work within different international contexts may lead individuals to develop a greater understanding of their own as well as different ways of undertaking work (Lee, 2014). It is important to note however, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically expose themselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. As mentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation or separation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the society in which they are working. It could therefore be argued that both expatriation and working within a culturally diverse and international organisation could develop an individual’s global identity. Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness of different cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures to create a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence and adaptability is gained through 3 steps; the understanding of the individuals own culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, and improving one’s cultural intelligence. The exposure to different cultures through international assignments and working within a global organisation can assist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne, 2008). This exposure to different cultures needn’t just be through work either, Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to different cultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. While some of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to the development of an understanding of different cultures. Crowne (2008) argues that any exposure to different cultures is directly associated with an individual’s cultural intelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, international education and travel have a greater impact. Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s ability to effectively adapt to new cultures and has been found to have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley, 2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able to adjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance within multicultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence is born through 4 main dimensions; Cognitive – gaining the knowledge of values and norms of different cultures, Motivational – the commitment to acquiring new knowledge and learn, Behavioural – the ability to adapt to new cultural situations, and Metacognitive – the ability to monitor one’s self, and to adjust based on new experiences (Lee, 2018 & Ang et al, 2007). The importance of cultural intelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with seeing past the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee, 2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all of the facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Interestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-cultural competence, which reduces the pressure that may be associated with handling difficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increases effectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligence of the majority of individuals will increase through international assignments and working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) further this argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managers within organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leadership styles favoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the cultural variables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen that the cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vital to their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the cultural intelligence of an individual, the more understanding, aware and open they should be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). The emerging concept of cosmopolitan global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception, cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundaries and complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept has now been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and cultural dimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, most researchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness to different cultures as well as the values and beliefs that they may hold. Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to be globally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure that expatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and values associated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizens are seen to be more engaged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizens and hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of a cosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of a single national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen – who should be less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely (2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobic attitudes, a relationship which is moderated by the level of globalisation in the individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisation demonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism and xenophobic attitudes. The dictionary definition of xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usually thought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is based on the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of a different nation or social group (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) argues that the idea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines social identity as the differences between social groups with members feeling more strongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views are therefore the result of social groups – such as nations and culture, being different from one another (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results of globalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturals and individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisation is causing to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, instead of heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such â€Å"superordinate† identities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities, and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognise that some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heightening nationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic views against those seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decrease xenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While this study was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints an interesting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts on different people within the same country, and that context is incredibly important (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such as the accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenophobic attitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders – which globalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011). This essay explored the impact which globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether a cosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that has developed a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understand other cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essay found that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify as cosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their national culture/identity and identify more with a global identity. Using social identity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that while xenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, or national groups – the fact that more people are identifying as global citizens is reducing the differences between these groups around the world, and therefore reducing xenophobic attitudes. References Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007). Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371. Ariely, G. (2011). Globalization, immigration and national identity: How the level of globalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructive patriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), pp.539-557. Ariely, G. (2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation: A cross-national exploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96. Arnett, J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), pp.774-783. Berry, J. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712. Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy of multinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), pp.81-98. Collings, D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing in the multinational enterprise: Challenges to the conventional expatriate assignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2), pp.198-213. Crowne, K. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), pp.391-399. Dorfman, P. House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10. Earley, P. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, pp.271-299. Elenkov, D. and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on innovation and the role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4), pp.357-369. Gupta, A. and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126. Heine, J. and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. [online] Available at: https://www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation. Held, D. and McGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge: Polity. Hong, Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet-Martà ­nez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720. Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadership and Cultural Intelligence. Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadership practices: a cross-cultural management perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan Sanchez, J., Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world: A developmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14(2), pp.96-106. Sideri, S. (1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of Development Research, 9(1), pp.38-82. Smith, A. D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. Strum (Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 17–32). New York, NY: Routledge. Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence, Realistic Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-Cultural Adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173. Triandis, H. (2006). Cultural Intelligence in Organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.20-26. UNESCO (2018). Xenophobia | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/. Woodward, I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization and cosmopolitanism: cultural diversity, personal consumption and the national economy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226. Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship â€Å"As globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas and products across national boundaries, individuals will be more identified as global citizens and less prone to xenophobic attitudes.† Discuss. While globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, it provides opportunities to individuals to become global citizens. However, while this essay will argue that this has made them less prone to xenophobic attitudes, globalisation has also had other impacts which may have only provoked xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact which globalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how Multinational Corporations have increased the need for globally mobile employees, therefore increasing their cultural intelligence along the way. The essay will also explore employees working within global organisations who are not globally mobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance of cultural intelligence will also be discussed alongside the growing focus of scholars on cosmopolitan or global citizens, and finally, the essay will examine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobic views. Globalisation is the introduction and growth of products, people, information, and money across borders and is an important impact on the shape of national identities and relationships (Ariely, 2011).   Arnett (2002) argues that globalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-set of citizens around the world and has positively and sometimes negatively redefined national identity and culture. In effect, globalisation defines the world in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens identify themselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnett, 2002). However, some researchers have argued that in the process globalisation has undermined national cultures and identity – creating what is moving towards a single identity for all global citizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively, globalisation has been guided by â€Å"economic forces† (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) with the actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNC’s) furthering globalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNC’s comes the need for the retention and transfer of knowledge between operating units and countries (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNC’s for three main reasons; to fill positions where no suitable candidate exists in the host country, as an opportunity to develop the expatriate’s skills, and most importantly; to transfer important knowledge and corporate culture from home to host countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNC’s expats will work with people of many different nationalities, and globalisation is only expediting the mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the number of cultures in which expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is exposure to new cultures has increased the number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feel accustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiation process. The knowledge and understanding of different cultures that being bi-cultural brings allows these individuals to adapt quickly and become more adept to different situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generally undergo an identity negotiation process when entering employment with a new organisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014). Sanchez et al (2000) explain that during the adjustment process to working within a different culture, an individual may become more attached to their home unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. This acculturation is essentially a process leading to cultural changes within the individual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014), and can be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operating in different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation with their home and host country and can lead to positive outcomes – however, two of the outcomes of acculturation can be marginalisation or separation, where an individual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry, 2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiation process, where when individuals encounter a new culture question their values and beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity through experimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014). While expats seem to have the most experience with operating within different cultures, globalisation has meant that even individuals working within their home country can experience different cultures too (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals working in organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well as those with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of different cultures. Experience of work within different international contexts may lead individuals to develop a greater understanding of their own as well as different ways of undertaking work (Lee, 2014). It is important to note however, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically expose themselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. As mentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation or separation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the society in which they are working. It could therefore be argued that both expatriation and working within a culturally diverse and international organisation could develop an individual’s global identity. Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness of different cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures to create a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence and adaptability is gained through 3 steps; the understanding of the individuals own culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, and improving one’s cultural intelligence. The exposure to different cultures through international assignments and working within a global organisation can assist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne, 2008). This exposure to different cultures needn’t just be through work either, Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to different cultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. While some of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to the development of an understanding of different cultures. Crowne (2008) argues that any exposure to different cultures is directly associated with an individual’s cultural intelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, international education and travel have a greater impact. Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s ability to effectively adapt to new cultures and has been found to have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley, 2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able to adjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance within multicultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence is born through 4 main dimensions; Cognitive – gaining the knowledge of values and norms of different cultures, Motivational – the commitment to acquiring new knowledge and learn, Behavioural – the ability to adapt to new cultural situations, and Metacognitive – the ability to monitor one’s self, and to adjust based on new experiences (Lee, 2018 & Ang et al, 2007). The importance of cultural intelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with seeing past the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee, 2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all of the facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Interestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-cultural competence, which reduces the pressure that may be associated with handling difficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increases effectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligence of the majority of individuals will increase through international assignments and working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) further this argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managers within organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leadership styles favoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the cultural variables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen that the cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vital to their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the cultural intelligence of an individual, the more understanding, aware and open they should be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). The emerging concept of cosmopolitan global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception, cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundaries and complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept has now been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and cultural dimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, most researchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness to different cultures as well as the values and beliefs that they may hold. Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to be globally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure that expatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and values associated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizens are seen to be more engaged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizens and hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of a cosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of a single national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen – who should be less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely (2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobic attitudes, a relationship which is moderated by the level of globalisation in the individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisation demonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism and xenophobic attitudes. The dictionary definition of xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usually thought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is based on the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of a different nation or social group (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) argues that the idea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines social identity as the differences between social groups with members feeling more strongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views are therefore the result of social groups – such as nations and culture, being different from one another (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results of globalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturals and individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisation is causing to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, instead of heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such â€Å"superordinate† identities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities, and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognise that some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heightening nationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic views against those seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decrease xenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While this study was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints an interesting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts on different people within the same country, and that context is incredibly important (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such as the accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenophobic attitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders – which globalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011). This essay explored the impact which globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether a cosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that has developed a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understand other cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essay found that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify as cosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their national culture/identity and identify more with a global identity. Using social identity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that while xenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, or national groups – the fact that more people are identifying as global citizens is reducing the differences between these groups around the world, and therefore reducing xenophobic attitudes. References Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007). Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371. Ariely, G. (2011). Globalization, immigration and national identity: How the level of globalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructive patriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), pp.539-557. Ariely, G. (2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation: A cross-national exploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96. Arnett, J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), pp.774-783. Berry, J. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712. Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy of multinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), pp.81-98. Collings, D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing in the multinational enterprise: Challenges to the conventional expatriate assignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2), pp.198-213. Crowne, K. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), pp.391-399. Dorfman, P. House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10. Earley, P. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, pp.271-299. Elenkov, D. and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on innovation and the role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4), pp.357-369. Gupta, A. and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126. Heine, J. and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. [online] Available at: https://www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation. Held, D. and McGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge: Polity. Hong, Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet-Martà ­nez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720. Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadership and Cultural Intelligence. Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadership practices: a cross-cultural management perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan Sanchez, J., Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world: A developmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14(2), pp.96-106. Sideri, S. (1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of Development Research, 9(1), pp.38-82. Smith, A. D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. Strum (Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 17–32). New York, NY: Routledge. Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence, Realistic Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-Cultural Adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173. Triandis, H. (2006). Cultural Intelligence in Organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.20-26. UNESCO (2018). Xenophobia | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/. Woodward, I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization and cosmopolitanism: cultural diversity, personal consumption and the national economy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226.

Religion as a Method of Improvement for Gender Equality Essay -- Chris

Religion as a Method of Improvement for Gender Equality Although women were still viewed and treated as second-class citizens, the status of women seemed improve under Christianity, especially in regard to social interaction and Islam, especially in regard to legal rights such as inheritance laws. The improvement of women’s situation was particularly pronounced when compared to the even lesser status of women during the Greek and Roman periods. Improvement in the treatment of women under Christianity and Islam is evident in the religious texts of both of the religions. Christianity’s The Gospel According to Mark and The First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians and Islam’s central religious text, The Koran, provide concrete evidence as to how women’s treatment under Christianity and Islam was relatively progressive. During the Greek period, women were viewed as inferior citizens, with no real rights. Although Greek drama portrayed many strong, remarkable women, like Antigone, what women in Greece actually experienced was much different. The role of free women in Athens, and many other places in Greece, was confined to the private sphere of the household. Women were restricted to childbearing and supervising the work done in the household; a woman’s value was based on her ability to produce legitimate heirs and to be a homemaker. Young girls were confined to their homes and received no formal education. Instead, their mothers taught them domestic skills, which were viewed as the only appropriate education for a woman at the time. Athenian women were considered unintelligent and submissive, and thus could not vote, buy or sell property, or press legal charges. Thus, Athenian women were viewed as ‘idiots’ because they were unable to... ...ren (Cow 2:233). Letting a man dictate a woman’s personal choices like this may seem surprising in today’s society; however, at the time, Islam was viewed as relatively progressive for women. Like with Christianity, Islamic women are not men’s equals, but instead are provided by Islam with additional rights than before. Under Islam, women experienced more progress than complacency. Thus, women’s situation under Islam is more beneficial than their situation under Greek and Roman rule. Overall, women’s status in society improved in many different aspects—social, legal, and otherwise—under both Islam and Christianity, especially when compared to the Greek and Roman periods. However, women’s strive toward equality did not stop with the improvements that came from the religions. Women today are continually struggling worldwide to receive rights equal to that of men.

A Feminist Analysis of Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Ni

A Feminist Analysis of Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Nicolette  Ã‚   Currently, there is a debate among feminists as to whether the demeaning portrayal of women in popular media causes or is caused by negative attitudes in modern culture. A similar debate exists among historians of the late middle ages as to whether the rise in popularity of the cult of the Virgin, her portrayal in art, and the code of chivalry caused or was caused by changing attitudes towards women. Many factors in the late middle ages coincided to create an entirely new role for women: contact with the Muslim world in Spain, the rising popularity of religious life, and the aforementioned cultural changes. All of these factors are intertwined with the new attitudes that arose around women. Virginity became exalted, femininity was lauded, courtly love turned women into objects of devotion rather than objects of desire. In short, women were placed on a pedestal. The cultural paradox of this shift in attitudes is that by being placed on that pedestal, women became objects rather than individuals. This dichotomy between respect for women as a group and respect for individual women is clearly shown in three Medieval Romances. Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Nicolette may vary greatly in plot, tone and style, but the underlying assumption is the same. In the Medieval Romance, women may be objects of devotion, but they are still merely objects to earned, won, owned and do minated. The first example of this attitude is the saga of the damsel whom Perceval boorishly assaults. This woman, never named, is utterly enslaved and abused by men. Perceval, not heeding her protests, forces her into a compromising situation and then robs he... ...band is a Muslim. The Christian king of Biaucaire, by contrast, does not honor her right to self-determination. The Muslim roots of Nicolette's relative freedom serve as one answer to the question of whether this literature is derivative of the culture or whether it shaped the culture. From this evidence, it seems that the former is true. The pervasiveness of the oppressive attitudes demonstrated in these texts show clearly the dichotomous view of women in the late middle ages. The respect of womanhood which was so central to the chivalric code did not translate into greater freedom for women themselves. Modern opponents of feminism claim that the Women’s Movement has reversed this dichotomy, namely that individual freedoms have devalued women as a group. Perhaps we should ask why our culture has a problem with valuing womanhood and valuing women concurrently. A Feminist Analysis of Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Ni A Feminist Analysis of Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Nicolette  Ã‚   Currently, there is a debate among feminists as to whether the demeaning portrayal of women in popular media causes or is caused by negative attitudes in modern culture. A similar debate exists among historians of the late middle ages as to whether the rise in popularity of the cult of the Virgin, her portrayal in art, and the code of chivalry caused or was caused by changing attitudes towards women. Many factors in the late middle ages coincided to create an entirely new role for women: contact with the Muslim world in Spain, the rising popularity of religious life, and the aforementioned cultural changes. All of these factors are intertwined with the new attitudes that arose around women. Virginity became exalted, femininity was lauded, courtly love turned women into objects of devotion rather than objects of desire. In short, women were placed on a pedestal. The cultural paradox of this shift in attitudes is that by being placed on that pedestal, women became objects rather than individuals. This dichotomy between respect for women as a group and respect for individual women is clearly shown in three Medieval Romances. Perceval, Tristan and Isolt, and Aucassin and Nicolette may vary greatly in plot, tone and style, but the underlying assumption is the same. In the Medieval Romance, women may be objects of devotion, but they are still merely objects to earned, won, owned and do minated. The first example of this attitude is the saga of the damsel whom Perceval boorishly assaults. This woman, never named, is utterly enslaved and abused by men. Perceval, not heeding her protests, forces her into a compromising situation and then robs he... ...band is a Muslim. The Christian king of Biaucaire, by contrast, does not honor her right to self-determination. The Muslim roots of Nicolette's relative freedom serve as one answer to the question of whether this literature is derivative of the culture or whether it shaped the culture. From this evidence, it seems that the former is true. The pervasiveness of the oppressive attitudes demonstrated in these texts show clearly the dichotomous view of women in the late middle ages. The respect of womanhood which was so central to the chivalric code did not translate into greater freedom for women themselves. Modern opponents of feminism claim that the Women’s Movement has reversed this dichotomy, namely that individual freedoms have devalued women as a group. Perhaps we should ask why our culture has a problem with valuing womanhood and valuing women concurrently.